In September 2025, the leaders of China, Russia, Iran, and North Korea were seen together in public for the first time. They were in Beijing for an event commemorating the end of World War II. Xi Jinping strode out in front, flanked by Vladimir Putin and Kim Jong Un. Iran's President Masoud Pezeshkian walked behind among the coterie of other world leaders. While the public spectacle made headlines as the first meeting of the new "Axis of Evil," no actual meeting between the four leaders took place. Nevertheless, the symbolic challenge to the West was clear.
In recent years, Iran, Russia, China, and North Korea have been frequently termed as part of a putative anti-Western alignment – an emerging de facto alliance dubbed by observers as a new "Axis of Evil," an "Axis of Upheaval," or an "Axis of Disorder." On the surface, this partnership appears to present a coordinated front challenging the Western liberal order. But beneath this veneer of solidarity lie deep undercurrents of mistrust and distrust that complicate and undermine Iran's relations with its would-be allies.
Trust is at the center of international relations. Scholars have long explored how trust shapes international diplomacy and statecraft. When applied to the emergent axis of upheaval, the coalition shows fragility. Fault Lines: Exploring Mistrust and Distrust Between Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea draws from this substantial literature to better understand the frailties in relations. We draw on the literature on trust and distrust to better understand the frictions and fault lines among strategic competitors, including states such as China, Russia, Iran, and North Korea, and consider the policy implications of these dynamics.
In this introductory essay, we establish the foundation for the analyses that follow, taking a thematic approach to illuminate how diplomatic dealings, military cooperation, economic ties, and ideological differences are each colored by skepticism. We situate this inquiry within a broader international relations context, linking the Axis countries' cautious pragmatism and lingering suspicions to broader theories of alliance politics and the challenges of strategic partnership under conditions of uncertainty.